Concept Of Role And Role Episode Model

Concept Of federal jump onncy And social function Episode Model piece punctuate is highly inevitable in nature and has become problem at take inplace for employers and presidency. The main purpose of this constitution to study the concept of berth, grapheme emphasis, their biosocial variables as easy as lineament episode model. . Number of studies erect that there is difference in the impact of manipulation straining across occupations..This paper also deals management of social function air with the help of mentoring and use episode model. parting episode model is a classical model used to beatnik procedure stress.Key words procedure episode model, Role contravention, share equivocalness and grapheme pluck, bio-social variables, melodic line stress, joke mirth, labor achieveance.Introduction The concept of stress was first proposed by Hans Selye (1936). Selyes well-known definition of stress, based on his research, is the nonspecific response of the b ody to any demand made upon it (Selye, 1974).Stress is broader in landmark and to narrow down stress is very difficult. Due to its hard nature most of the researchers tummynot agree on a single definition ( Kahn Boysiere ,1992). Stress flowerpot be a motivator and get the job dvirtuoso .Some stress researchers ( e.g Golembiewski, Munzernrider and Stewenson ,1986Sharahan and Mor clock timer ,1996),distinguish between negative stress ,termed distress and despotic stress, termed eustress. This proper stress or eustress can be defined as is unfeignedly a positive and healthy form of stress and some people enjoy it .Eustress activates and motivates people to accomplish goal. The Distress is when the good stress becomes too much to bear or cope with. It is important to note that there atomic number 18 three levels of stress - small level, moderate or best level and high level. Moderate or Optimal level of stress may acts as a motivator. On the basis of literature opinion it is distinctly understood that too much stress is toxic to employees and too little stress can also lead unexpected problem.e.g too little stress can result in boredom apathy and can be accompanied by low deed and too much stress can cause depression, dissatisfaction, anxiety, tension and low performance. An optimal level of stress results in high energy, motivation and high performanceThe cause of stress is known as stressors stressors atomic number 18 conditions and events that evoke strain (Kahn Byosiere, 1992). concord to Cooper Marshall (1978) sources of managerial stress can be categorized into six components -intrinsic to job , routine in makeup , cargoner development ,organisational structure and climate, human kinship within organization and organizational interface and outside .Matteson Ivancevic (1999) and Cook Hunsaker (2001) identified that stress can be caused by environmental, organizational, and individual variables. Role stressors belong to organizatio nal variables.Role stressors are major antecedents of job stress among employees in organization .According to Ivancevich Matteson (1980) and French Caplan Harrison (1982) , routine ambiguity and routine fight guard been identified as a major source of stress and job tension. Work hook both quantitatively and qualitatively has been empirically link up to a variety of physiological ,psychological and behaviour strain symptoms(Beehr Newman, 1978 Roberts et al., 1997 Miller Ellis, 1990).It was found that role stress variables are associated with job dissatisfaction, unhorse performance ,increased stress , rase commitment and intention to leave the organization .According to various researchers ( fisher cat and Gitelson, 1983 Jackson and Schuler, 1985Van Sell et al., 1981 Lee, 1997 Jones, 1993),role stress is responsibile for individual as well as organizational outcomes ,such(prenominal) as job tension ,job dissatisfaction , employee turnover and employee burnout and low organizational commitment and performance (Johnston et al., 1990 Jackson and Schuler, 1985).Concept of Role Role episode modelThe term role can be defined as a expected mode of behaviour. in that respect are three types of roles (I) the expected role, (ii) the perceived role and (iii) the factual role. The expected role is what other people expect from an individual. The perceived role is how the individual thinks he or she should be consider to fulfil the expected role and the actual role is the way the individual actually be gestates in the organization. Linton (1936) defined role from culture perspective .Role episode model is known as reciprocal management tool between Role batch Members Role Incumbent given by Katz and Kahn ( 1978) . In order to examine and integrate the research on role conflict and ambiguity, Khan et al. role episode model is very useful. The model depicts transactional relationship between role transmitters and central someone. Focal person or rol e incumbent occupies a particular position (social location) within organization. Individuals who send role expectation to the focal person regarding his or her activities in the role via media role go under ( Merton 1957) .They are called role senders or Role Set Members. When Role Set Members communicated their expectations are called sent role carries role pressure .The set of expectations a role incumbent or focal person receive from Role Set Members is the received role. The role episode model consists of a cyclical series of communications between Role Set Member and the Role Incumbent. This process continues until the role episode finishes, creates shared expectations or postpone negotiations. Fig 1 suggests that there are organizational, individual(prenominal), and interpersonal factors which affect the role episode model. The organizational factors consist structure, level in the organization, role requirements, task characteristics, physical setting, and organizational practices. The personal factors (which can be applied to both the role senders and focal person) refer to such variables age, sex, and term of office in the organization. The interpersonal factors in the relationship between role senders and focal person include frequency of their interactions, mode of communication, importance of senders to focal person,physical location, visibility, feedback and participation. The role senders can be the focal persons supervisors, clients, co-workers, or subordinates. Role sender focal person relationship have generally been investigated by gathering perceptual data on role conflict and ambiguity from the objective responses. affective responses include job satisfaction, job involvement, tension, panic, anxiety, and propensity to leave the organization.Interpersonal ProcessFocal PersonExperience ResponseRole SenderExpectations Sent RoleInterInterpersonal FactorsPersonal FactorsOrganizational FactorsStructure Status Mode of CommunicationLevel Ne eds Frequency of InteractionRole requirements Values grandness of senderTask Education Mode of InteractionPhysical Setting Ability Physical locationPractices Age VisibilitySex FeedbackTenure trothSource Van Sell et al (1981)Fig1Literature ReviewRole stress/Role stressors and Bio-social VariablesRole stressors can be defined as anything near an organizational role that produces adverse consequences for the individual ( Kahn and Quinn,1970). Role related stress are concerned with how individuals perceive the expectations others have of them and includes role ambiguity and role conflict ( Alexandros -Stamatios et. al.,2003) .According to Schafer (1998) role stressors are associated with social roles, which are social positions with clustered expectations .Role problems that may cause occupational stress include role overload, role insufficiency, role ambiguity and role conflict (Greenberg, 2009).S ( Kahn,1980 Scbauberock ,Cotton and Jenning,1989Kellaway and Barling,1990) role stresso rs are made-up of three variables but related constructs role conflict ,role ambiguity role overload.The major role stress variables are -role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload/work overload .Role conflictRole conflict takes place when individuals simultaneously perform multiple roles and they conflict each other. Drafte (1998) defined role conflict job roles that interfere with on another and Schafer (1998) defined incompatible expectations associated with a social position, such as student, employee, or mother. Kahn et al (1964) have defined role conflict existence of two or more roles such that to manage with one would cook difficult to manage with other.Kahn et al. identify five major formsofroleconflict1.Intra-sender conflict-2.Inter-sender conflict-3.Inter-role conflict-4.Person-role conflict-5.Role-overload -conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from the same sender.conflicting prescriptions/proscriptions from different senders.conflict between roles in situation s where an individual holdsmore than one role.where an individuals role requirements are incompatible withhis/her own beliefs, value, and norms.reasonable expectations may have been received from rolesenders, but he/she may not have enough timeto grapple themall.Role ambiguity occurs when an individual does not .possess requisite information to enable effectiveexecutionofhis/her role. The typeofinfmmation normally required by the role incumbent includesKahn et al., 19641.relevant expectations relating to the role suchasrights, duties, and responsibilitiesThey identified five major forms of role i) Intrasender Conflict -This type of conflict occurs when a Role Set Member requires the Focal person to perform contradictory .For example a Role Sender may request the Role incumbent to perform task and task cannot be established without disturbing rules. But Role Sender attempts to enforce the rule.ii)Intersender Conflict -The Focal person experiences this type of conflict , if the role behaviour demanded by one Role Set Members incompatible with the role behaviour demanded by another Role Set Members.iii) Interrole Conflict -This type of conflict occurs when the Focal person receives two or more role at a time which are incongruence in nature.iv) Intrarole conflict ( Person-Role) Conflict Intrarole conflict occurs when the role requirements are incongruent with the focal persons attitudes , values and profession behaviour.v) Role Overload Role overload occurs when the Focal person is required to number of tasks by different Role Set Members .GenderWomen see more role conflict than men ( Frone et al. (1992) Gutek et al. 1991 and Duxbury et al. (1994).Working women face more inter-role conflict role overload as compare to men /or non-working women ( Kapur,1974).Cooper and Davidson ( 1982) account that the female executives have more role conflict and role overload because of dual responsibilities. According to Sangamitra, Buddhapriya and Preetham Khandewal (19 95),female executives face conflict between job demands and family obligations than the male mangers.AgeThere is contradictory findings were obtained between age and role conflict .Most of the studies support negative relationship between age role conflict (Peltit,1973 Simpson, 1979Schwab,1981 Parasuraman Alutto, 1984) and some studies which prove the other (Redfeck,1973 and Flora 1977, Madhu Harigopal, 1980Marital status (Married / Un get married)It was found that married person experience more role conflict than unmarried person Married working women have to perform dual role and child bearing could be one reason.Number of Children-According to Itshree Padhi,1999 working mothers with more number of children experience high -level of conflict than those who have fewer children.Kala Rani (1976) also found a similar correlation pattern in her study.On the basis of supra literature go off of role conflict conceptual framework can be designedRole AmbiguityRole ambiguity arises whe n focal persons do not have clear authority or knowledge about how to perform the assigned jobs (Rizzo, House Lirtzman, 1970 Ivancevich Matteson, 1980 Ashforth Lee, 1990Kahn et al ,1964) .Individuals having unclear plans and objective ,lack of clarity of ones duty and uncertainty about the amount of authority to perform assignment ( Rizzo et al ,1970) . Role ambiguity occurs when employees perceive a lack of clarity in the behavioural requirements of their job (Kahn et al., 1964 Rizzo et al., 1970). The focal person is likely to experience two types of role ambiguity. One, concerning the task and the related adivities the other concerning the feedback regarding his performance of the task.RoleFor e.g in case of academics, lack of regular feedback about how well academics were doing was the highest source of stress ( Dua1994 Sharpley et al.1996). Feedback is important to enable the academics to evaluate their performance on the job and how they are progressing in their effort tow ard task accomplishment. Since positive feedback may set as higher performance and less stress, academics who do not receive regular feedback may experience considerable uncertainty about their role performance (Bandura Locke, 2003). Higher ambiguity may also arise due to lack of clarity regarding how to prioritize different academic activities of teaching, research and professional services that are necessary for the successful accomplishment of academic role. Regular feedback from a supervisor may acerbate role ambiguity, which in turn reduces stress.Bio-social Variables that are associated with role ambiguity.a) Gender-b) Age- Peltit (1973) describe a negative relationship between role conflict and role ambiguity and age. Similar findings were obtained in an educational setting (Elsenhauer, 1977 Simpson, 1979 Schwab, 1981) but this was not support by Redfck (1973) and Flora (1977) who conducted studies in a similar background.Pandia (1991) reported that there is no relation be tween role ambiguity and age.Increasing age was associated with ambiguity ,according to Sreelatha ( 1991) finds a positive relationship between age and job ambiguity .But contradictory findings was obtained by Peltit (1971),he found negative relationship between age and job ambiguity.Increasing age was associated with role ambiguity ,Sreelatha ( 1991) finds a positive relationship between age and job ambiguity . Studies reported that role ambiguity is maximum at lower age group. It has been established that females experience more role ambiguity at lower age group because of the adjustments they have to make at the beginning of their married life and the presence of infants in the house etc.c) Length of service / Tenure -According to Madhu ( 1982) Nath ( 1980) there is negativerelationship between length of service role ambiguity . Malhan, Agarwal Krishna (1983) reported that managers with relatively less number of years of service might experience roleambiguity detrimental to th eir performance. There found to be a negative correlation existingbetween role ambiguity and length of service. Pandia (1991) reported that there is no relationbetween role ambiguity and age.Role Overload /Work OverloadWork overload also known as role overload role overload is a complex form of role conflict. According to Kahn et al ( 1964) role overload is a kind of person-role conflict and it is combining aspects of intersender and person-role conflicts .It occurs simply when employees have more task than he or she can handle. Role overload occurs when role expectations are higher than the focal persons capabilities ( terms taken from Kahn et al ,role episode model) .It can be either qualitative quantitative .Quantitative task can be defined as the person has too many tasks to perform or too little time to perform them and Qualitative occurs when person lacks ability to perform task . Workload stress can be defined as reluctance to come to work and a feeling of constant pressur e (i.e. no effort is enough) accompanied by the general physiological, psychological, and behavioural stress symptoms (Division of Human Resource, 2000).a) Gender-Cooper and Davidson ( 1982) reported that the female executives have role conflict and role overload because of their dual roles in the family and the office. Mehta ,Chandwani Mehta were of the opinion women face more workload as compare to men. Coverman (1989)) found that the role overload scores of women were higher than men .But men have higher overall satisfaction than women .Role overload could be one of the major reason of womens psychological stress. Pleck (1985) has suggested that women speak up of role overload not because of exhaustion or doing too much, rather her husband is doing too little.b) Age or Length of service span of learn Researchers( Philip C Koshy ,1994 ,Gupta Pratap,1987 Pestonjee ,1992 Sen ,1981) explored that there is negative relation between work load and length of service ,age span of control . Managers who are younger and those having lesser tenure of service experience more role overload. But contradictions finding was obtained For example Johnson et al .(2005) conducted comparative studies of 26 occupations(2005) concluded that teaching is one of the most trying occupations. The most stressful aspects of the job perceived by teachers include workload, time pressures and no guidance pertaining to various teacher roles (Hui Chan,1996). There was a national survey on occupational stress in Australian universities, research shows that employees at senior level face more workloads and more role-overload (Dua, 1994 Lease, 1999 Winter et al., 2000).Consequences of Role stressResearchers had proved that role stress affects individual and organization both .Kahn et al , concluded from their study role incumbent experiences low job satisfaction ,lower bureau in organization ,high degree of tension intention to quit organization. Role ambiguity was found to be preval ent as role conflict and the consequences are similar. Netemeyer , Johnston and Burton (1990) , role conflict and role ambiguity may responsible to leave job indirectly through other factors such as job dissatisfaction and low organizational commitment. According to Division of Human Resource, (2000) Workload stress is responsible for physiological, psychological, and behavioural stress symptoms. A number of studies by various researchers ( Behrman Perrault ,1984Brief and Aldag ,1976Fisher Gitelson ,1983House Rizzo ,1972)Relationship between Role stress speculate StressA number of studies proved that role stress are positively associated with anxiety, tension ,low performance and job dissatisfaction. RHL ( Rizzo ,House and Lirtzman ,1970) identified that role ambiguity responsible for job dissatisfaction , anxiety , tension and poor performance. Rosenheim (1976) found that anxiety is directly related to role conflict, role ambiguity and role overload. A number of studies by var ious researchers ( Behrman Perrault ,1984 Brief and Aldag ,1976 Fisher Gitelson ,1983House Rizzo 1972Jackson Schuler ,1985Johnson Stinson ,1975Miles,1975Miles and Perrault 1976 Rizzo at al ,1976Sohi ,1996) found that role conflict is associated with low job involvement organizational commitment , tension , anxiety intention to leave organization.According to Caplan Jones (1975) role ambiguity was positively associated with anxiety, depression, and resentment. Keenan and McBain (1979) found positive relationship between tension and role overload Similarly, most studies report a positive relationship between role ambiguity and tension or anxiety. But two studies report no relationship (Tosi, 1971 Tosi Tosi,1970).Relationship between Role stress Job SatisfactionAccording to Miles ( 1974 ) that role stress ( role sonflict role ambiguity ) were related to job dissatisfaction . Rosenheim (1976),Organ Greene (1974), Bemardin (1981), Coldwell (1981), Keenan (1981) and Madhu (198 2) found same thing .Jackson and Schuler, 1985 Brown and Peterson, 1993 Tubre and Collins, 2000 and Ortqvist and Wincent, 2006 ,they revealed that both role conflict and ambiguity have negative influences on job satisfaction. It has been found that the higher the role conflict, the lower the job satisfaction.( Srilatha 1991,Keller 1975,Krant 1966,Senatra 1977,Carter 1878,Singh 1983, Coldwell 1984.Jagdish and Srivastava 1984. Libby, 1978 Simpson, 1979 Price, 1971 Flora, 1977 Wilson,1980 Miller 1979 Riggling, 1979 Yarworth, 1979 Monnelt, 1980 Ahrens, 1977) . But according to Hamner and Tosi (1974) reported no relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction in a study among a sample of managers. Christopher Orpen John Bernath (1987) report that correlation between role conflict and job satisfaction is not significant. Miles (1974) ,Roseenheim( 1976) ,Organ Greene ( 1974),Bemardin ( 1981) .Coldwell ( 1981) , Keenan ( 1981) and Madhu ( 1982) concluded that both role conflict an d role ambiguity were negatively related with Job satisfaction Batesman (1981) in his study, reported that role overload resulted in poor job satisfaction.Note-On the basis of various literature reviews I came to know that relationship between role conflict role ambiguity with job satisfaction varies among a variety of occupation.Occupation Job satisfaction.The major outcomes of role conflict are job dissatisfaction and job related tension, which have been isolated among a variety of occupational groups (Beehr, Walsh Taber, 1976 Brief Aldag, 1976 Brief, Aldag, Van Sell Melone,1979 Gross et al., 1958 House Rizzo, 1972 Miles, 1976 Oliver Brief, 1977-78). According to Hamner and Tosi (1974) reported no relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction in a study among a sample of managers.They reported a positive correlation between role conflict and job threat among a sample of managers.Tosi and Tosi (1970) found a negative relationship between role conflict and job relat ed threat and anxiety. Keller (1975) observed negative relationship between role conflict and job satisfaction among research and development professionals but no such negative. The observation suggests the effectuate of role conflict transform with various occupations.There are number of studies shown a difference in the impact of role ambiguity across occupations. According to Beehr et al. 1976 Caplan et al. 1975 Greene 1972 Hamner Tosi, 1974 Johnson Stinson 1975 Paul 1974 Rizzo et al. 1970 role ambiguity to be associated with job dissatisfaction, studies among nurses aides (Brief Aldag, 1976) managers (Tosi, 1971) teachers (Tosi Tosi, 1970) and supervisors and operating employees (Ivancevich Dobbelly, 1974) found no relationship.Relationship between Role stress Job PerformanceShrtom , Fried and Cooper (2008) reported that the negative relation between job performance and role overload was higher for managers and non-managers.According to Kahn Boysiera 1992Mc Grath ,1976 Sahi ,1996 ,there is deleterious effects of role conflict and role ambiguity on Job performance .On the basis of above literature review conceptual framework can be designed Major ConsequencesJob StressJob dissatisfactionJob PerformanceRole conflict+Role ambiguity +Role overloadFig2On the basis of above literature review of role conflict conceptual framework can be designedManagement of Role stress in OrganizationMentoring -Mentoring can be one effective tool to manage role stress at workplace .According to Hunt Michael, (1983) mentors are highly experienced person in organization who is interested in guiding and promoting individuals career and also members of that Role Set. In addition mentors can provide role clarifying information to focal person and alternatives for dealing with role demands including role expectation that may create conflict. According to Griffin ( 1992) suggest that role ambiguity occurs because a person is not clear about her or his role. Role ambiguity occ urs when there is non-existent of information or there is no proper communication between Role Set Members and Role incumbent .Mentors can provide information that can clarify role expectation. Sawyer, 1992 found that quality feedback from Role Set Members or supervisors and co-workers is responsible to slander role ambiguity. According to Major, Kozilowski ,Chao Gardner (1995 ) ,intentions to leave organization can be minimized by high quality exchange between leaders and sub-ordinates.Role sender / Role Set Members / MentorsClear Role expectationsQuality feedbackFocal Person /Role IncumbentExperienced less Role conflict / Role ambiguityFeedback loopNote- Adapted from Role Episode Model , Mentors can be treated as a Role Set Members .Fig 3Role Episode Model classical tools to minimize level of role conflict and role ambiguityRole Episode Model ( Kahn et al ,1964) ,which is most equal model to explain variables related to role conflict and role ambiguity and is widely used by res earchers to study role stress variables among workers (Schuler, 1975 Fisher Gitelson 1973) According to Doughtery and Pitchard ,1985 ,the role conflict and role ambiguity measurement captured somewhat global perception of role stress and can be used with any job. Role conflict occurs in organization with the conflicting demands from There are various factors related to role stress such as organizational factors, interpersonal factors and attributes of person ( Role Set Member Focal Person both) . For ExamplesFaridah Ibrahim ( Predictors of Role Stress Among Malaysian Journalist in Newsroom Decision Making Process ,Journal Komunikasi 2001 )conducted research on journalist to identify the predictor variables involved in role stress( Role conflict Role ambiguity) and he adopted Role Episode model which consists of organizational variables , interpersonal variables personal variables. According to Kahn et al ( 1964) role stress occurs as enacted by role behaviours could be associated with these factors. Researcher taken 12 independent variables ( organizational variables are participation in task decision ,participation in decision making ,leadership behaviour supportive ,task characteristics ,leadership structure deadline pressure .Interpersonal variables are communication relationship and Interpersonal relationship .Personal variables are age ,years in formal education ,salary years of working) for investigation and out of the 12 variables quaternion variables ( working experience genus Beta =-.29deadline pressure ,beta=-.25 ,task characteristics beta=-.20 and participation in task decision, beta=.13) were found to be good predictors of role conflict and for role ambiguity ,out of the 12 variables four variables ( interpersonal relationship ,Beta= -.39participation in decision making ,Beta = -.17, task characteristics ,beta= -.17 and years of experience ,beta = -.11) were found to be good predictors. it can be tell that working experience is the strongest predictor for role conflict .Conclusion There are independent biosocial variables are responsible in contributing stress in role stressors.in role ambiguity. .Biosocial variables are independent variables which interact with role stressors to produce negative consequences such as job stress, job dissatisfaction and low performance .Researchers found that there is positive relationship between role stressors and job stress, job dissatisfaction and role performance. Contradictory findings were obtained by some researchers in relationship between role stress and job dissatisfaction. It was found that difference in the impact of role ambiguity and role conflict across various occupations. Studies found that role ambiguity to be associated with job dissatisfaction, but studies among nurses aides, managers, teachers and supervisors and operating employees found no such relationship. Number of researchers explored that there is negative relationship between role conflict and job satisfact ion but in case of research and development professionals but no such negative relationship had been found.Role stress can be managed by mentoring as well as role episode model .Role Episode model is one the classical tool to identify significant predictors associated with role stress and predictors can be analysed to minimize role stress. In mentoring role sender can play role of mentor ,who can communicate clear role expectations as well as expectations that match the focal persons expectation . In addition quality feedback from role sender to the focal person can monimize the effects of role stress on individual as well as organization.Intrapersonal conflict involves diagnosis of and intervention in ,conflict .DiagnosisIntrapersonal conflict can be diagnosed by self report ,observation and interview method .Rizzo et al designed questionnaire to measure role conflict and role ambiguity and is frequentely used in organization studies.Conclusion Role conflict , role ambiguity and ro le overload are associated with biosocial variables such as age , gender , years of experience , marital status and number of children .Biosocial variables are independent variables which interact with role stressors to producehttp//htmlimg1.scribdassets.com/4lk2zrg8e8y8jki/images/27-9e40fbd968.jpg